The Matter of Aratta: The Great Sumerian Epic

The Matter of Aratta is the modern title of a collection of four poems (Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana, Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave, and Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird) concerning the rivalry between the cities of Uruk and Aratta, dating to the period of 32120.

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The Matter of Aratta is the modern title of a collection of four poems—Enmerkar and Lord of Aratta, Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana, Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave, and Lugalbanda and Anzud Bird—concerning the rivalry between the cities of Uruk and Aratta and dating to the period 32120 AH.

The order in which they were composed is unknown, and scholars disagree about the order in which they were read, but they originated in the scribe schools of Nippur, probably during the reign of Shulgi-Ur (2094-2046 BC). The popularity of the arata subject is demonstrated by the number of manuscripts discovered in Nippur and elsewhere from the mid-nineteenth century, as well as the style in which they were written, suggesting that the hands of highly skilled scribes were creating enduring works, not mere scribal exercises.

Since they depict historical characters in fictional stories, these works may also be considered the oldest form of historical fiction.

All four poems were part of the curriculum of Eduba ("House of Tablets"), the Sumerian school of writing, and were included as texts required for mastery at the end of formal education for graduation. All of Anmerkar's poems feature King Uruk, who, according to the Sumerian King List, reigned for over 400 years during the Uruk Period (c. 4000-2900 BCE) and founded the city.

His successor, Lugalbanda, is the main character in what are usually considered the last two poems (sometimes translated as a single work), also known as Lugalbanda I and Lugalbanda II. Since these works depict historical figures in fictional stories, they may also be considered Mesopotamian narrow literature, the oldest form of historical fiction.

According to some scholars, including Samuel Noah Cramer and H. LG Vanstifoot, these works were created to commemorate Sumerian culture during the period now known as the Sumerian Renaissance, when the Sumerian kings of the Ur III dynasty revived their cultural heritage, artworks, artworks and projects after the Gothic occupation of the region ended. Today, the four poems on the subject of Arata are among the most influential poems in the collection of ancient Mesopotamian literature, and together they form the great Sumerian epic.

The Uruk Period, which saw the founding and growth of cities, was followed by the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia (c. 2900 to c. 2350/2334 BCE), during which Sumerian culture flourished. Then the government of the cities by Sargon of Akkad (Sargon the Great, reigned 2334-2279 BC)

Although the Sumerian city-states had repeatedly rebelled against Sargon and his successors, they found the Goths to be far worse rulers, as later inscriptions attest. Scholar Paul Krivachek quotes from later Sumerian scribes reporting on the Gothian occupation:

[According to Sumerian scribes], the disaster they [the Goths] saw in Akkad was merciless: "Nothing escaped their clutches, no one escaped their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled the highways, couriers no longer crossed the rivers. The land was turned into mud, and all foreign lands cried out bitterly from the walls of their cities."

As Krivachek and others have pointed out, these accounts may be poetic tales that exaggerate and dramatize the fall of Akkad, whose decline may have been more due to climate change, drought, and famine than any invasion. However, the Goths seem to have failed to establish a stable government—their king lists show a rapid succession of kings—and so something like the chaotic picture of time presented by Sumerian scribes may have resulted.

The Goths were challenged by Otho-Hegal, king of Uruk (r. c. 2119–c. 2112 BC), and after his death by Ur-Namu (r. c. 2112–2094 BC), founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur and father of Shulgi Ur, who succeeded him. Ur-Namu and Shulgi drove the Ur-Goths out of Sumer, after which Shulgi commissioned works and initiated policies to honor his father (who died fighting the Goths) and revive Sumerian culture. It is thought that the poems of Arata's material were written at this time to celebrate the stables of Uruk and link the Ur III dynasty with an ancient and glorious past.

The subject of Arata concerns Anmerkar's efforts to force King Arata to submit to him.

Arata is depicted in several Sumerian poems, before the theme of Arata, as a city of legendary wealth, which lay far beyond the borders of Sumer. Modern scholars tend to place it somewhere in ancient Elam, past Susa (in present-day Iran). In Madhe Arata's poems, it can only be reached by passing seven mountains, and it is a treasure of gold, lapis lazuli, silver and other precious objects.

The subject of Arata concerns Anmerkar's efforts to get King Arata to submit to him and send him the precious materials he needs to decorate the temple of the goddess Inanna at Uruk. Inanna, in the first poem, lives in Arata but secretly supports Anmerkar and prefers to move to Uruk. It is suggested that if Anmerkar can build a nice house for her, he will do so.

If one reads the matter of Arata with Anmerkar and the lord of Arata, the problems start when Anmerkar wants to beautify the Inanna temple with materials from Arata. He asks Inanna what to do, and she suggests that he send a message to Arata and ask for the ingredients he needs. Enmerkar casts the "Nudimmud spell" (the spell of Enki, the god of wisdom), which allows everyone to understand others regardless of the language they speak. Then he sends his messenger ("of eloquent speech characterized by endurance") who has memorized his words exactly beyond the seven mountains with his wishes.

The lord of Arata refuses to submit to Uruk and returns the messenger with a challenge: if Anmerkar can send him grain in net instead of sacks, he will consider submission. Anmerkar considers the riddle and asks his servants to soak the seeds and place them in finely woven nets so that none of them fall. Then the messenger delivers the grain to Arata.

Lord Arata then asks Anmarkar to hand him a scepter that has no known substance. Anmerkar spends years perfecting the substance, which he pours into a hollow reed, and after breaking the reed, sends the scepter to Arata.

Still unsatisfied, Lord Arata sends the messenger back, asking for the colorless hero to be sent to fight his hero. Anmerkar weaves a lion skin cloth for his hero and sends him to Arata.

When Arata's lord still does not surrender, Anmerkar delivers a long rebuke to his messenger, which he claims is too difficult for him to remember. The king then takes a reed pen and a piece of clay and writes his message—thus inventing writing—which is sent to Arata. When Lord Arata receives the tablet, he is confused by the written word and surrenders to Anmarkar. A rainstorm sent by Inanna ends the drought in Arata, and while refusing to leave Arata, the goddess embraces Anmerkar and unites the two cities in peace as trade partners.

As the story opens, En-suhgir-ana, Arata's lord, claims that he is Inanna's beloved lover, and Enmerkar of Uruk rebukes him, claiming the same for himself. En-suhgir-ana insults Anmerkar as a poor lover, and Anmerkar sends for Arata through the mountains to surrender to him. En-suhgir-ana refuses, even though the council of elders chastises him for causing trouble with Uruk and asks him to end the quarrel before it escalates.

A visiting sorceress named Orgyrinona makes her way to the court and tells Anna Sohgir that she can cast a powerful spell that will force Uruk to submit to her. The king pays her and promises her more if she succeeds, and Orgirinona sets off for the city of Arsh, sacred to the goddess of writing, Nisaba, and close to Uruk, where she casts a spell that kills dairy cattle of all shapes and sizes. The herdsmen pray to Utu-Shamash, god of the sun and justice, for help, and Sagburo appears to challenge the sorcerer Orgirinuna.

Urgirinuna and Sagburu meet in the Euphrates River, where she throws fish eggs and produces an animal, but each time Sagburu does the same, and a creature appears to devour Urgirinuna. Urgirinona recognizes that he is no match for Sagboro and begs for his life, but he refuses, telling her that he has hurt her before and will undoubtedly do it again. He kills him and throws his body into the river. When En-suhgir-ana received news of the defeat, he surrendered to Uruk.

Logalbandadar Ghar Kouh (Logalbanda I)

As the poem begins, Anmerkar asks Arata for various precious materials to adorn the temple of Inanna at Uruk. Tired of Arata's refusal, he mobilizes his army to march on the city. His eight commanders are brothers, and the youngest of them is Najib Lugalbanda, who is known for his piety. As they march across the mountains, Lugalbanda falls ill. There seems to be no cause for illness and treatment, but the army must go on, and so, leaving him with food and water, his brothers march with the others.

For two days, Lugalbanda prays for the salvation of Inanna, Shamash, and the moon god Nana—the gods he has faithfully served all his life—and they restore him to health. He goes hunting, but instead of taking the food for himself, he prepares a feast for the gods and offers it to them. The gods are pleased and suggest that Lugalbanda should henceforth excel others.

Lugalbanda and the bird Anzod (Lugalbanda II)

The story continues from the end of the previous work with Lugalbanda resting in the mountain cave. He has recovered his health but does not know where he is or how he can rejoin the army. The mountainous regions are the home of the great bird Anzod, so large that the flapping of its wings brings a storm and its breath is fire. Lugalbanda is not eager to meet the bird, but feels that if he wants to find his way, he has no choice, so he looks for its nest.

When he finds it, the nest is ruined, and the bird's brood is hungry, having been out herding cows for so long. Lugalbanda repairs and fixes the nest and feeds the young bird, and when Anzod returns, he is so grateful that he grants Lugalbanda any wish he wishes. He tempts the young soldier with wealth and power, but all Lugalbanda wants is speed and endurance, which is granted.

Anzod helps Lugalbanda locate the army and returns to his lair after telling him not to let anyone learn of his new powers. Lugalbanda quickly joins forces and finds Anmerkar in a desperate state. The king is about to abandon the siege of Arata and has lost faith in his mission. He needs to know if Inanna still supports him, but the only way to ask her is to go back to Uruk and talk to him in his temple - and Uruk is far away.

Lugalbanda volunteers to return to Uruk alone, and using his new powers, arrives there the next day. Inanna tells him that she still supports Anmerkar and orders the king to cut down a nettle tree she finds by the river and to get a special fish for sacrifice, and then Arata falls into her hands. The tablet crashes after Arata's description and Lugalbanda's praise, but his mission is said to be a success and Anmerkar is victorious.

Lugalbanda is best known today as the father of the hero Gilgamesh and the husband of the goddess Ninson from the Epic of Gilgamesh. In that story, Gilgamesh begins as a proud and arrogant king who must learn humility through the loss of his friend Enkidu, but in these stories, Lugalbanda is portrayed from the beginning as a devout servant of the gods who already understands his place in the world at a young age. Instead of getting sick for no reason, instead of screaming out of anger or despair, he thanks the gods and asks for their help, and even though he is afraid of the future, he asks for their help and provides for his children.

Lugalbanda and Anmerkar, who both appear as dates in the Sumerian King List (although their reigns are improbable), are here portrayed as admirable figures who choose peaceful means to achieve their goals until, in Anmerkar's case, those options run out. The Sumerian King List does not provide details of what the historical Enmerkar and Lugalbanda looked like—if they existed at all—but their depiction in the Arata theme is exactly how the Ur III kings wanted to be seen by their subjects.

Ornamo presented himself as a father figure to his people. His laws, the Law of Ur-Nammu, were issued to prevent potential trouble and enable his subjects to live peacefully together. Shulgi of Ur continued his father's policies and completed the great ziggurat of Ur, improved roads, temples, cities and encouraged literacy through the establishment of more schools.

Aratha's theme might be thought to have been written to link these kings to a greater past, even if that past never existed, when rulers sought peaceful solutions to conflicts and spared their subjects the horrors of war. Vanstiphout comments:

[In these stories] military glory is denied and even mocked to some extent in at least two poems. Instead, the emphasis is on cultural and technical skill expressed as the highest form of intelligence, including writing. Moreover, they clearly prefer their dominant position to be based on peaceful coexistence, even friendly relations with the outside world, rather than brute force. Their moral principles are based on respect for life forces in all their aspects.

Their attitude towards gods is practical and far from naive. Whatever they get, they get by their wits and skill, while the gods provide, at most, moral support... The kind of world and society that [the Sumerians] envisioned in these poems, in an obviously idealistic way, is therefore really a mythical and pastoral kind of world. Their assumption is that [Uruk's] mastery over that world will be beneficial to all, and that rule should be used for this purpose.

However, it is unclear whether Arata falls through the attack or surrenders, as Inanna only tells Lugalbanda that Anmerkar will win. In Anmerkar and Lord of Arata, the conflict between the two cities is resolved without bloodshed, and in Anmerkar and An Suhgir-Anna, magic is used, and it is even said that the form of Sagburu is the incarnation of the goddess Nisaba, who gives divine approval to the match with Urgirinuna. Throughout the poems advocate a different approach to political conflict than violence, and even if this may be perceived as unrealistic, it is still an admirable point of view.

This human-written article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our editorial policy.

Bertman, S. Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press, 2005.